ASSIGNMENT 9
METHOD OF AUTHENTICATIONS
In art, antiques, and anthropology, a common problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain famous person, or was produced in a certain place or period of history.
There are two types of techniques for doing this.
The first is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. An archaeologist might use carbon dating to verify the age of an artifact, do a chemical analysis of the materials used, or compare the style of construction or decoration to other artifacts of similar origin. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a known physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs, or videos.
Attribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery. In general, it relies on the fact that creating a forgery indistinguishable from a genuine artifact requires expert knowledge, that mistakes are easily made, or that the amount of effort required to do so is considerably greater than the amount of money that can be gained by selling the forgery.
In art and antiques certificates are of great importance, authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged and the authentication of these pose a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren, the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well; see the article Jacques van Meegeren.
Criminal and civil penalties for fraud, forgery, and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, depending on the risk of getting caught.
The second type relies on documentation or other external affirmations. For example, the rules of evidence in criminal courts often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives and forensics staff that handled it. Some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. External records have their own problems of forgery and perjury, and are also vulnerable to being separated from the artifact and lost.
Currency and other financial instruments commonly use the first type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for receivers to verify.
Consumer goods such as pharmaceuticals, perfume, fashion clothing can use either type of authentication method to prevent counterfeit goods from taking advantage of a popular brand's reputation (damaging the brand owner's sales and reputation). A trademark is a legally protected marking or other identifying feature which aids consumers in the identification of genuine brand-name goods.
Saturday, March 27, 2010
what is authentications?
ASSIGNMENT 8
WHAT IS AUTHENTICATIONS
Authentication (from Greek: αυθεντικός ; real or genuine, from authentes; author) is the act of establishing or confirming something (or someone) as authentic, that is, that claims made by or about the subject are true ("authentification" is a French language variant of this word). This might involve confirming the identity of a person, tracing the origins of an artifact, ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labeling claims to be, or assuring that a computer program is a trusted one.
WHAT IS AUTHENTICATIONS
Authentication (from Greek: αυθεντικός ; real or genuine, from authentes; author) is the act of establishing or confirming something (or someone) as authentic, that is, that claims made by or about the subject are true ("authentification" is a French language variant of this word). This might involve confirming the identity of a person, tracing the origins of an artifact, ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labeling claims to be, or assuring that a computer program is a trusted one.
can privacy be protected?
ASSIGNMENT 7
CAN PRIVACY BE PROTECTED?
1.1 PRIVACY LAW
Privacy law is the area of law concerned with the protection and preservation of the privacy rights of individuals. Increasingly, governments and other public as well as private organizations collect vast amounts of personal information about individuals for a variety of purposes. The law of privacy regulates the type of information which may be collected and how this information may be used.
Specific privacy laws
These laws are designed to regulate specific types of information. Some examples include:
• Health privacy laws
• Financial privacy laws
• Online privacy laws
• Communication privacy laws
• Information privacy laws
• Privacy in one's home
1.2 UTILITIES SOFTWARE
Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility or tool.
Utility software should be contrasted with application software, which allows users to do things like creating text documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing the web. Rather than providing these kinds of user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system, application software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.
Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks. However, there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one software.
Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities.
CAN PRIVACY BE PROTECTED?
1.1 PRIVACY LAW
Privacy law is the area of law concerned with the protection and preservation of the privacy rights of individuals. Increasingly, governments and other public as well as private organizations collect vast amounts of personal information about individuals for a variety of purposes. The law of privacy regulates the type of information which may be collected and how this information may be used.
Specific privacy laws
These laws are designed to regulate specific types of information. Some examples include:
• Health privacy laws
• Financial privacy laws
• Online privacy laws
• Communication privacy laws
• Information privacy laws
• Privacy in one's home
1.2 UTILITIES SOFTWARE
Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility or tool.
Utility software should be contrasted with application software, which allows users to do things like creating text documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing the web. Rather than providing these kinds of user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system, application software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.
Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks. However, there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one software.
Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities.
What Is Privacy?
ASSIGNMENT 6
WHAT IS PRIVACY?
1.1 HOW DOES COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY THREATEN PRIVACY OF OUR DATA
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
We are currently living in the so-called information age which can be described as an era were economic activities are mainly information based (an age of informationalization). This is due to the development and use of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy) and internationalization (trans-border flow of data).
This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems which are mainly related to issues such as the right of access to information, the right of privacy which is threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of information, and the protection of the economic interest of the owners of intellectual property.
In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy of the individual which is threatened by the use of technology will be discussed. Specific attention will be given to the challenges these ethical problems pose to the information professional. A number of practical guidelines, based on ethical norms will be laid down.
1.1.2 THE CONCEPT OF PRIVACY
Definition of Privacy
Privacy can be defined as an individual condition of life characterized by exclusion from publicity (Neetling et al., 1996, p. 36). The concept follows from the right to be left alone (Stair, 1992, p. 635; Shank, 1986, p. 12)1 . Shank (1986, p. 13) states that such a perception of privacy set the course for passing of privacy laws in the United States for the ninety years that followed. As such privacy could be regarded as a natural right which provides the foundation for the legal right. The right to privacy is therefore protected under private law.
The legal right to privacy is constitutionally protected in most democratic societies. This constitutional right is expressed in a variety of legislative forms. Examples include the Privacy Act (1974) in the USA, the proposed Open Democracy Act in South Africa (1996) and the Data Protection Act in England. During 1994 Australia also accepted a Privacy Charter containing 18 privacy principles which describe the right of a citizen concerning personal privacy as effected by handling of information by the state (Collier, 1994, p. 44-45). The Organization for Economic and Coordination and Development (OECD) also accepted in 1980 the Guidelines for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (Collier, 1994, p. 41).
Privacy is an important right because it is a necessary condition for other rights such as freedom and personal autonomy. There is thus a relationship between privacy, freedom and human dignity. Respecting a person's privacy is to acknowledge such a person's right to freedom and to recognize that individual as an autonomous human being.
The duty to respect a person's privacy is furthermore a prima facie duty. In other words, it is not an absolute duty that does not allow for exceptions. Two examples can be given. Firstly, the police may violate a criminal's privacy by spying or by seizing personal documents (McGarry, 1993, p. 178)2 . A government also has the right to gather private and personal information from its citizens with the aim of ensuring order and harmony in society (Ware, 1993:205). The right to privacy (as an expression of individual freedom) is thus confined by social responsibility.
Different Categories of Private Information
Based on the juridical definition of privacy, two important aspects which are of specific relevance for the information profession must be emphasized. The first is the fact that privacy as a concept is closely related to information - in terms of the definition of Neethling (1996, p. 35) privacy refers to the entirety of facts and information which is applicable to a person in a state of isolation. The fact that privacy is expressed by means of information, implies that it is possible to distinguish different categories of privacy namely, private communications, information which relates to the privacy of a person's body, other personal information, and information with regard to a person's possessions. Each of these categories will be briefly dealt with.
- Private communications. This category of privacy concerns all forms of personal communication which a person wishes to keep private. The information exchanged during a reference interview between the user and the information professional can be seen as an example.
- Privacy of the body (Westin, 1967, p. 351). This normally refers to medical information and enjoys separate legal protection (Neethling, 1991, p. 35-36). According to this legislation a person has the right to be informed about the nature of an illness as well as the implications thereof. Such a person further has the right to privacy about the nature of the illness and can not be forced to make it known to others. The only exception is when the health, and possibly the lives of others may be endangered by the specific illness - such as the case may be where a person is HIV positive and the chance exists that other people may contract the virus.3 This category of information is of specific importance for an information professional working in a medical library.
- Personal information. Personal information refers to those categories of information which refer to only that specific person, for example bibliographic (name, address) and financial information. This type of information is of relevance to all categories of information professionals.
- Information about one's possessions. This information is closely related to property right. According to this a person does have control over the information which relates to personal possessions in certain instances. For example, a person may keep private the information about the place where a wallet is kept.
The Expressed Will to Privacy
The following important aspect of privacy is the desire for privacy (by means of an expressed will) since this desire is important for the delimitation of privacy. In short, the desire for privacy implies that privacy will only be at issue in cases where there is a clear expression of a desire for privacy. For example, a personal conversation between two persons will be regarded as private as long as there is an expressed will to keep it private. The moment that this will is relinquished the information is no longer regarded as private. The same applies to the other categories of personal and private information. If a person makes a private telephone number (as a form of personal information) known to a company, it is no longer regarded as private information. According to the law it can then even be seen as business information which may legally be traded in. This expressed will to privacy acts therefore as a very important guideline for the information professional regarding the delimitation of privacy.
The Relationship Between Privacy and Confidentiality (Secrecy)
It is also important to distinguish between privacy and confidentiality/secrecy. The confidential treatment of information is not only applicable to the above-mentioned four categories of private and personal information - it may refer to any category of information, such as, inter alia, trade secrets.
1.2 COMPUTER COOKIES
There are two types of computer cookies: temporary and permanent. Temporary cookies, also called session cookies, are stored temporarily in your browser's memory and are deleted as soon as you end the session by closing the browser. Permanent cookies, also called persistent cookies, are stored permanently on your computer's hard drive and, if deleted, will be recreated the next time you visit the sites that placed them there.
Cookie technology addressed the need to keep track of information entered at a site so that if you submitted a registration form for example, the site could associate that information with you as you traveled through the site's pages. Otherwise, every time you clicked on a different page in the site, establishing a new connection, the site would lose the information in reference to you, forcing you to re-enter it.
A temporary cookie solved this problem in the short term by setting aside a little bit of browser memory to save information. However, once the browser was closed, all temporary cookies were lost. Return surfers were not recognized and registration information had to be re-supplied at every visit.
Persistent cookies solved this problem. They allowed a site to recognize a surfer permanently by transferring a text file with a unique ID tag to the visitor's hard disk, matching a file on the server. On subsequent visits, the browser automatically handed this cookie over, allowing the site to pull up their matching cookie. Now cookies could persist for years.
Both temporary and permanent computer cookies can be used for many helpful purposes. Automatic registration logon, preserving website preferences, and saving items to a shopping cart are all examples of cookies put to good use. But permanent cookies also resulted in unanticipated uses, such as Web profiling.
Websites began keeping track of the surfing habits of its visitors, using computer cookies to log when an individual visited, what pages were viewed, and how long the visitor stayed. If he or she returned at a later date, the visitor’s cookie triggered open the log of previous visits and was amended to include the new visit. If personal information was offered on any of these visits, name, address and other information was associated with the "anonymous" ID tag, and consequently, the entire profile.
Marketers developed an even greater advantage for cookie profiling. Having advertising rights on several hundred and even many thousands of the most popular websites, marketers could pass third-party cookies to surfers and subsequently recognize individuals as they traveled across the Web, from site to site, logging comprehensive profiles of people's surfing habits over a period of months and even years. Sophisticated profiling programs quickly sort information provided by computer cookies, categorizing targets in several different areas based on statistical data. Gender, race, age, income level, political leanings, religious affiliation, physical location, marital status, children, pets and even sexual orientation can all be determined with varying degrees of accuracy through cookie profiling. Much depends on how much a person surfs, and where he or she chooses to go online.
As a result of public outcry in response to surreptitious profiling, cookie controls were placed in post 3.x browsers to allow users to turn cookies off — options that were not available in 1995 when permanent cookie technology was first embedded into browsers without public awareness or knowledge of how they could be used. Cookie controls also allow user-created lists for exceptions, so that one can turn cookies off, for example, but exempt sites where computer cookies are put to a useful purpose. Third-party cookies often have their own controls, as they are normally tracking cookies placed by marketers. Cookie contents are encrypted and are only readable by the site that placed them.
1.2 ELECTRONIC PROFILE
Electronic profile is the combining of data in a database that can be sold to the Internet by the company to the interested parties.
This database is in a form such as magazine subscription or product warranty cards that had been filled by online subscribers.
The information in electronic profile includes personal details such as your age, address and marital status.
1.3 SPYWARE
Spyware is a type of malware that is installed on computers and collects little bits of information at a time about users without their knowledge. The presence of spyware is typically hidden from the user, and can be difficult to detect. Typically, spyware is secretly installed on the user's personal computer. Sometimes, however, spywares such as keyloggers are installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer on purpose in order to secretly monitor other users.
While the term spyware suggests that software that secretly monitors the user's computing, the functions of spyware extend well beyond simple monitoring. Spyware programs can collect various types of personal information, such as Internet surfing habits and sites that have been visited, but can also interfere with user control of the computer in other ways, such as installing additional software and redirecting Web browser activity. Spyware is known to change computer settings, resulting in slow connection speeds, different home pages, and/or loss of Internet or functionality of other programs. In an attempt to increase the understanding of spyware, a more formal classification of its included software types is captured under the term privacy-invasive software.
In response to the emergence of spyware, a small industry has sprung up dealing in anti-spyware software. Running anti-spyware software has become a widely recognized element of computer security practices for computers, especially those running Microsoft Windows. A number of jurisdictions have passed anti-spyware laws, which usually target any software that is surreptitiously installed to control a user's computer. The US Federal Trade Commission has placed on the Internet a page of advice to consumers about how to lower the risk of spyware infection, including a list of "do's" and "don'ts."
WHAT IS PRIVACY?
1.1 HOW DOES COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY THREATEN PRIVACY OF OUR DATA
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
We are currently living in the so-called information age which can be described as an era were economic activities are mainly information based (an age of informationalization). This is due to the development and use of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy) and internationalization (trans-border flow of data).
This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems which are mainly related to issues such as the right of access to information, the right of privacy which is threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of information, and the protection of the economic interest of the owners of intellectual property.
In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy of the individual which is threatened by the use of technology will be discussed. Specific attention will be given to the challenges these ethical problems pose to the information professional. A number of practical guidelines, based on ethical norms will be laid down.
1.1.2 THE CONCEPT OF PRIVACY
Definition of Privacy
Privacy can be defined as an individual condition of life characterized by exclusion from publicity (Neetling et al., 1996, p. 36). The concept follows from the right to be left alone (Stair, 1992, p. 635; Shank, 1986, p. 12)1 . Shank (1986, p. 13) states that such a perception of privacy set the course for passing of privacy laws in the United States for the ninety years that followed. As such privacy could be regarded as a natural right which provides the foundation for the legal right. The right to privacy is therefore protected under private law.
The legal right to privacy is constitutionally protected in most democratic societies. This constitutional right is expressed in a variety of legislative forms. Examples include the Privacy Act (1974) in the USA, the proposed Open Democracy Act in South Africa (1996) and the Data Protection Act in England. During 1994 Australia also accepted a Privacy Charter containing 18 privacy principles which describe the right of a citizen concerning personal privacy as effected by handling of information by the state (Collier, 1994, p. 44-45). The Organization for Economic and Coordination and Development (OECD) also accepted in 1980 the Guidelines for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (Collier, 1994, p. 41).
Privacy is an important right because it is a necessary condition for other rights such as freedom and personal autonomy. There is thus a relationship between privacy, freedom and human dignity. Respecting a person's privacy is to acknowledge such a person's right to freedom and to recognize that individual as an autonomous human being.
The duty to respect a person's privacy is furthermore a prima facie duty. In other words, it is not an absolute duty that does not allow for exceptions. Two examples can be given. Firstly, the police may violate a criminal's privacy by spying or by seizing personal documents (McGarry, 1993, p. 178)2 . A government also has the right to gather private and personal information from its citizens with the aim of ensuring order and harmony in society (Ware, 1993:205). The right to privacy (as an expression of individual freedom) is thus confined by social responsibility.
Different Categories of Private Information
Based on the juridical definition of privacy, two important aspects which are of specific relevance for the information profession must be emphasized. The first is the fact that privacy as a concept is closely related to information - in terms of the definition of Neethling (1996, p. 35) privacy refers to the entirety of facts and information which is applicable to a person in a state of isolation. The fact that privacy is expressed by means of information, implies that it is possible to distinguish different categories of privacy namely, private communications, information which relates to the privacy of a person's body, other personal information, and information with regard to a person's possessions. Each of these categories will be briefly dealt with.
- Private communications. This category of privacy concerns all forms of personal communication which a person wishes to keep private. The information exchanged during a reference interview between the user and the information professional can be seen as an example.
- Privacy of the body (Westin, 1967, p. 351). This normally refers to medical information and enjoys separate legal protection (Neethling, 1991, p. 35-36). According to this legislation a person has the right to be informed about the nature of an illness as well as the implications thereof. Such a person further has the right to privacy about the nature of the illness and can not be forced to make it known to others. The only exception is when the health, and possibly the lives of others may be endangered by the specific illness - such as the case may be where a person is HIV positive and the chance exists that other people may contract the virus.3 This category of information is of specific importance for an information professional working in a medical library.
- Personal information. Personal information refers to those categories of information which refer to only that specific person, for example bibliographic (name, address) and financial information. This type of information is of relevance to all categories of information professionals.
- Information about one's possessions. This information is closely related to property right. According to this a person does have control over the information which relates to personal possessions in certain instances. For example, a person may keep private the information about the place where a wallet is kept.
The Expressed Will to Privacy
The following important aspect of privacy is the desire for privacy (by means of an expressed will) since this desire is important for the delimitation of privacy. In short, the desire for privacy implies that privacy will only be at issue in cases where there is a clear expression of a desire for privacy. For example, a personal conversation between two persons will be regarded as private as long as there is an expressed will to keep it private. The moment that this will is relinquished the information is no longer regarded as private. The same applies to the other categories of personal and private information. If a person makes a private telephone number (as a form of personal information) known to a company, it is no longer regarded as private information. According to the law it can then even be seen as business information which may legally be traded in. This expressed will to privacy acts therefore as a very important guideline for the information professional regarding the delimitation of privacy.
The Relationship Between Privacy and Confidentiality (Secrecy)
It is also important to distinguish between privacy and confidentiality/secrecy. The confidential treatment of information is not only applicable to the above-mentioned four categories of private and personal information - it may refer to any category of information, such as, inter alia, trade secrets.
1.2 COMPUTER COOKIES
There are two types of computer cookies: temporary and permanent. Temporary cookies, also called session cookies, are stored temporarily in your browser's memory and are deleted as soon as you end the session by closing the browser. Permanent cookies, also called persistent cookies, are stored permanently on your computer's hard drive and, if deleted, will be recreated the next time you visit the sites that placed them there.
Cookie technology addressed the need to keep track of information entered at a site so that if you submitted a registration form for example, the site could associate that information with you as you traveled through the site's pages. Otherwise, every time you clicked on a different page in the site, establishing a new connection, the site would lose the information in reference to you, forcing you to re-enter it.
A temporary cookie solved this problem in the short term by setting aside a little bit of browser memory to save information. However, once the browser was closed, all temporary cookies were lost. Return surfers were not recognized and registration information had to be re-supplied at every visit.
Persistent cookies solved this problem. They allowed a site to recognize a surfer permanently by transferring a text file with a unique ID tag to the visitor's hard disk, matching a file on the server. On subsequent visits, the browser automatically handed this cookie over, allowing the site to pull up their matching cookie. Now cookies could persist for years.
Both temporary and permanent computer cookies can be used for many helpful purposes. Automatic registration logon, preserving website preferences, and saving items to a shopping cart are all examples of cookies put to good use. But permanent cookies also resulted in unanticipated uses, such as Web profiling.
Websites began keeping track of the surfing habits of its visitors, using computer cookies to log when an individual visited, what pages were viewed, and how long the visitor stayed. If he or she returned at a later date, the visitor’s cookie triggered open the log of previous visits and was amended to include the new visit. If personal information was offered on any of these visits, name, address and other information was associated with the "anonymous" ID tag, and consequently, the entire profile.
Marketers developed an even greater advantage for cookie profiling. Having advertising rights on several hundred and even many thousands of the most popular websites, marketers could pass third-party cookies to surfers and subsequently recognize individuals as they traveled across the Web, from site to site, logging comprehensive profiles of people's surfing habits over a period of months and even years. Sophisticated profiling programs quickly sort information provided by computer cookies, categorizing targets in several different areas based on statistical data. Gender, race, age, income level, political leanings, religious affiliation, physical location, marital status, children, pets and even sexual orientation can all be determined with varying degrees of accuracy through cookie profiling. Much depends on how much a person surfs, and where he or she chooses to go online.
As a result of public outcry in response to surreptitious profiling, cookie controls were placed in post 3.x browsers to allow users to turn cookies off — options that were not available in 1995 when permanent cookie technology was first embedded into browsers without public awareness or knowledge of how they could be used. Cookie controls also allow user-created lists for exceptions, so that one can turn cookies off, for example, but exempt sites where computer cookies are put to a useful purpose. Third-party cookies often have their own controls, as they are normally tracking cookies placed by marketers. Cookie contents are encrypted and are only readable by the site that placed them.
1.2 ELECTRONIC PROFILE
Electronic profile is the combining of data in a database that can be sold to the Internet by the company to the interested parties.
This database is in a form such as magazine subscription or product warranty cards that had been filled by online subscribers.
The information in electronic profile includes personal details such as your age, address and marital status.
1.3 SPYWARE
Spyware is a type of malware that is installed on computers and collects little bits of information at a time about users without their knowledge. The presence of spyware is typically hidden from the user, and can be difficult to detect. Typically, spyware is secretly installed on the user's personal computer. Sometimes, however, spywares such as keyloggers are installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer on purpose in order to secretly monitor other users.
While the term spyware suggests that software that secretly monitors the user's computing, the functions of spyware extend well beyond simple monitoring. Spyware programs can collect various types of personal information, such as Internet surfing habits and sites that have been visited, but can also interfere with user control of the computer in other ways, such as installing additional software and redirecting Web browser activity. Spyware is known to change computer settings, resulting in slow connection speeds, different home pages, and/or loss of Internet or functionality of other programs. In an attempt to increase the understanding of spyware, a more formal classification of its included software types is captured under the term privacy-invasive software.
In response to the emergence of spyware, a small industry has sprung up dealing in anti-spyware software. Running anti-spyware software has become a widely recognized element of computer security practices for computers, especially those running Microsoft Windows. A number of jurisdictions have passed anti-spyware laws, which usually target any software that is surreptitiously installed to control a user's computer. The US Federal Trade Commission has placed on the Internet a page of advice to consumers about how to lower the risk of spyware infection, including a list of "do's" and "don'ts."
Thursday, February 18, 2010
Computers Ethics & Legal Issues
ASSIGNMENT 5
COMPUTERS ETHICS & LEGAL ISSUES
1.1 UNETHICAL CODES OF CONDUCTS
With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from the Internet. You may not realize that when you fill a form on the Internet, your information may be exposed and stolen. Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:
•modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the accuracy of the information.
•selling information to other parties without the owner’s permission.
•using information without authorization.
•involvement in stealing software.
•invasion of privacy.
1.2 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property (IP) is a term referring to a number of distinct types of legal monopolies over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial, and the corresponding fields of law. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and trade secrets in some jurisdictions.
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the United States.[2] The British Statute of Anne 1710 and the Statute of Monopolies 1623 are now seen as the origin of copyright and patent law respectively.[3]
1.3 PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS
Algorithm or function, but the first to file for it. In the United States, a patent excludes Patents are granted by a governing body, for example, the Patent and Trademark Office of the U.S. government or European governments. The patent is not given to the first to invent the anyone from making, using, or selling the idea covered by the patent. It guarantees legal remedies over a period of twenty years within the United States and its territories. The specific criteria for a patent vary country by country, but it is generally recognized that the invention must be novel, useful, and not obvious. One example where a patent is used rather than other legal options is that of an encryption algorithm. By acquiring a patent on an encryption algorithm, the inventor has full control over how it can be used or implemented in software. Another example is the formula for a prescription drug.
1.4 TRADEMARK FOR BRAND IDENTITY
A brand is a name used to identify and distinguish a specific product, service, or business. A legally protected brand name is called a proprietary name.
1.5 DESIGN FOR PRODUCTS APPEARANCE
The appearance attributes of designed products noted in the literature often reflect what designers themselves perceive in a product design. This present research, however, provides knowledge on how consumers perceive product appearance by identifying appearance attributes that consumers use to distinguish the appearances of durable products. Descriptions of appearance were generated by consumers in a free categorization task. The descriptions were classified as the attributes Modernity, Simplicity and Playfulness. These attributes were confirmed in a separate rating-task performed by a second group of consumers. The attributes proved stable across different groups of consumers indicating that they are universal. Additionally, the attributes were validated across different product categories and are thus generalizable and not product category specific. The appearance attributes identified in this research provide knowledge of what consumers see in durable product appearance. Knowledge of what appearance attributes are perceived by consumers in a product design can help a designer to communicate certain pre-specified meanings in a product.
1.6 COPYRIGHT FOR MATERIAL
Copyright is the set of exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Copyright lasts for a certain time period after which the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to a wide range of works that are substantive and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work. Copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along with patents and trademarks.
The Statute of Anne 1709, long title "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned", is now seen as the origin of copyright law.
Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty and one hundred years from the author's death, or a shorter period for anonymous or corporate authorship. Some jurisdictions have required formalities to establish copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
COMPUTERS ETHICS & LEGAL ISSUES
1.1 UNETHICAL CODES OF CONDUCTS
With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from the Internet. You may not realize that when you fill a form on the Internet, your information may be exposed and stolen. Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:
•modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the accuracy of the information.
•selling information to other parties without the owner’s permission.
•using information without authorization.
•involvement in stealing software.
•invasion of privacy.
1.2 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property (IP) is a term referring to a number of distinct types of legal monopolies over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial, and the corresponding fields of law. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and trade secrets in some jurisdictions.
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the United States.[2] The British Statute of Anne 1710 and the Statute of Monopolies 1623 are now seen as the origin of copyright and patent law respectively.[3]
1.3 PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS
Algorithm or function, but the first to file for it. In the United States, a patent excludes Patents are granted by a governing body, for example, the Patent and Trademark Office of the U.S. government or European governments. The patent is not given to the first to invent the anyone from making, using, or selling the idea covered by the patent. It guarantees legal remedies over a period of twenty years within the United States and its territories. The specific criteria for a patent vary country by country, but it is generally recognized that the invention must be novel, useful, and not obvious. One example where a patent is used rather than other legal options is that of an encryption algorithm. By acquiring a patent on an encryption algorithm, the inventor has full control over how it can be used or implemented in software. Another example is the formula for a prescription drug.
1.4 TRADEMARK FOR BRAND IDENTITY
A brand is a name used to identify and distinguish a specific product, service, or business. A legally protected brand name is called a proprietary name.
1.5 DESIGN FOR PRODUCTS APPEARANCE
The appearance attributes of designed products noted in the literature often reflect what designers themselves perceive in a product design. This present research, however, provides knowledge on how consumers perceive product appearance by identifying appearance attributes that consumers use to distinguish the appearances of durable products. Descriptions of appearance were generated by consumers in a free categorization task. The descriptions were classified as the attributes Modernity, Simplicity and Playfulness. These attributes were confirmed in a separate rating-task performed by a second group of consumers. The attributes proved stable across different groups of consumers indicating that they are universal. Additionally, the attributes were validated across different product categories and are thus generalizable and not product category specific. The appearance attributes identified in this research provide knowledge of what consumers see in durable product appearance. Knowledge of what appearance attributes are perceived by consumers in a product design can help a designer to communicate certain pre-specified meanings in a product.
1.6 COPYRIGHT FOR MATERIAL
Copyright is the set of exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Copyright lasts for a certain time period after which the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to a wide range of works that are substantive and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work. Copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along with patents and trademarks.
The Statute of Anne 1709, long title "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned", is now seen as the origin of copyright law.
Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty and one hundred years from the author's death, or a shorter period for anonymous or corporate authorship. Some jurisdictions have required formalities to establish copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Tuesday, February 16, 2010
Quiz (The Impact Of Ict On The Society)
QUIZ THE IMPACT OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY
NAME: NUR FARZANA BINTI MOHD MAHDI
CLASS: 4 BESTARI
DATE: 09 FEBRUARY 2010
Activity 1
Choose wither true or false.
1. B
2. A
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. A
10. B
Activity 2
Fill in the box with the right answer provided below.
Social Problems
~people are interested to communication through online chatting rather than having real time.
Speed
~bordeless communication.
Health Problems
~using computers frequently and for long hours is harmful to one’s health.
Sharing
~exchanging of information through the internet-discussion groups, mailing list and forums.
Parpeless Enviroment
~information travels faster like sending e-mails to friends or business partners.
Globalisation
~information is stored systematically and can be retrived at any time.
NAME: NUR FARZANA BINTI MOHD MAHDI
CLASS: 4 BESTARI
DATE: 09 FEBRUARY 2010
Activity 1
Choose wither true or false.
1. B
2. A
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. A
10. B
Activity 2
Fill in the box with the right answer provided below.
Social Problems
~people are interested to communication through online chatting rather than having real time.
Speed
~bordeless communication.
Health Problems
~using computers frequently and for long hours is harmful to one’s health.
Sharing
~exchanging of information through the internet-discussion groups, mailing list and forums.
Parpeless Enviroment
~information travels faster like sending e-mails to friends or business partners.
Globalisation
~information is stored systematically and can be retrived at any time.
Friday, February 5, 2010
the impact of ict on the society
ASSIGNMENT 4
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY
Advantage
1.0 FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED
1.1 In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.
2.0 LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
2.1 Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.
3.0 RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION
3.1 Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.
GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4.0 EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
4.1 With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.
5.0 PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
5.1 ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6.0 BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
6.1 Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.
Disadvantage
7.0 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
7.1 There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and introvert.
Another negative effect of ICT is :
• fraud
• identity theft
• Pornography
• Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
8.0 HEALTH PROBLEMS
8.1 A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY
Advantage
1.0 FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED
1.1 In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.
2.0 LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
2.1 Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.
3.0 RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION
3.1 Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.
GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4.0 EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
4.1 With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.
5.0 PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
5.1 ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6.0 BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
6.1 Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.
Disadvantage
7.0 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
7.1 There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and introvert.
Another negative effect of ICT is :
• fraud
• identity theft
• Pornography
• Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
8.0 HEALTH PROBLEMS
8.1 A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.
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